| Implementation is one of the crucial stages of public | | | | Health, Education, and Welfare was forcing for |
| policy process which has been defined by Hill, Michael | | | | increased funding for its established skill centre. |
| and Hupe, Peter (2002: 3) as “to carry out, | | | | There were 30 decision points identified by the authors |
| accomplish, fulfill, produce, complete.” Pressman and | | | | who stress that there was a time at which one or |
| Wildavsky (1984) contend that policy and | | | | more participants had to reach agreement before the |
| implementation are so much interrelated that the two | | | | project proceeded. For this purpose, 70 agreements |
| stages are very difficult to separate completely; as, | | | | were needed by various stakeholders. Hence the |
| “a verb like ‘implement’ must have an object | | | | authors concluded that if the probability of agreement |
| like ‘policy’.” (Hill & Hupe 2002: 4). Apart form | | | | at each clearance point were 0.99, the probability of |
| the approaches used for the study of implementation, | | | | success of the whole project would be less than 50%. |
| the objective is to implement what is being planned | | | | It the probability of agreement was only 0.09 at each |
| and their outcomes tell us about the results and | | | | clearance point, then the probability of success would |
| whether the set goals are achieved or not. On this | | | | drop to barely one percent (p. 108). The authors |
| basis, the success or failure of any policy can be | | | | contend that to minimize the chances of delay and |
| judged. | | | | divergence of interests, the “essential policy |
| A case study of Economic Development Agency | | | | problem is how to provide incentives to change low to |
| (EDA) initiated in 1966 with $23 million, Jeffery L. | | | | high intensity or more accurately, how to maintain high |
| Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky (1984) provide a | | | | positive intensity through the lengthy delays” (p. 120). |
| critical account of the study of implementation and the | | | | They also discussed the change of intensity of |
| challenges faced by this program and the underlying | | | | commitment by pointing the change of officials at |
| causes of the failure of this program. EDA was an | | | | different stages, as for instance, Foley was a very |
| agency established by the Congress which aimed at | | | | passionate about the program who was replaced (due |
| providing employment opportunities to minorities in cities. | | | | to his resignation) by officials who had far less intensity |
| However, Oakland was chosen as experiment in | | | | of commitment to the project. Linking policy formulation |
| showing how the provision of public works and building | | | | with implementation is important for the successful |
| loans can provide incentives for employers to hire | | | | implementation without delays; “although those who |
| minorities (Pressman & Wildavsky 1984: xx). The | | | | design programs might not generally enjoy the less |
| project aimed at creating 3000 jobs for the | | | | exciting work of directing their implementation, a |
| Oakland’s Black-American minority basically. | | | | realization of the extent to which policy depends on |
| Although there was a high sense of urgency at the | | | | implementation could lead such people to alter their |
| beginning of the project, but sooner, the doubts about | | | | own time perspectives and stay around for the |
| the success of the program became evident. | | | | technical details of executing a program” |
| Eugene Foley, the Assistant Secretary of Commerce | | | | (Pressman & Wildavsky 1984: 146). By explaining the |
| for Economic Development, was the early initiator of | | | | reason for delay, they argue that consensus between |
| the program who wished to initiate “a massive | | | | several decision makers is difficult to achieve due the |
| experiment in solving the principle urban problem, | | | | bargaining between administrators and stakeholders. |
| unemployment” in Oakland (Pressman & Wildavsky | | | | The problem is not the “no” at any decision point |
| 1984: 2). He believed that the huge injection of needed | | | | by the decision makers, but the challenge is achieve |
| funds ($23 million) was the most important component | | | | the “yes” of several actors. |
| for the success of the project (though he resigned in | | | | The writers also contend that “the use of |
| 1966). After examining the “torturous course of the | | | | resources is a direct function of intensity of |
| program”, Pressman and Wildavsky (1984) have | | | | preference” (Pressman and Wildavsky 1984: 117). |
| given the account of frustrations of the program | | | | The desired outcome is easy to achieve if the intensity |
| characterized by underlying reasons adding to | | | | to achieve the outcomes is high and vis-à-vis. |
| frustrations and the “difficulties of translating broad | | | | Pressman and Wildavsky (1984) also spoke about the |
| agreement into specific decisions, given a wide range | | | | importance of bureaucracy is to ensure a “high |
| of participants and perspectives” (p. 6), blockage | | | | probability that each and every actor will |
| and delay, underlying economic theories etc. the | | | | cooperate” (p. 132). Similarity of goals and |
| authors point towards these “technical details” | | | | objectives is very imperative. By coordination, the |
| of the project which had to be worked out closely for | | | | authors mean that it is about the “ability to enforce |
| the effective implementation of the project. | | | | agreements on employers when you are unable to do |
| One of the characteristics of the program’s | | | | so; compelling federal agencies and their component |
| requirements was the compulsion for employers | | | | parts to act in a desired manner at the right time, when |
| wishing to receive EDA business loan to draw up an | | | | achieving this purpose is precisely what you can not |
| employment plan specifying how these companies | | | | do” (Pressman & Wildavsky 1984: 134). |
| would hire the long term unemployed Black residents | | | | In essence, EDA’s Oakland project, which was |
| of Oakland. For this purpose the EDA was required to | | | | basically an urban development agency, has shown |
| work in collaboration with other local, state and federal | | | | that “implementation should not be divorced from |
| agencies for creating training program. This added to | | | | policy” (Pressman & Wildavsky 1984: 143). The |
| the complexity of joint agreement between broad | | | | EDA project was initially seen as not very complex; as |
| number of actors who further diverge in mutual | | | | all the goals were set and funds committed but the |
| consensus, sense of urgency and levels of priority. | | | | complexity and multiplicity of several actors, agencies, |
| This accounted for the unanticipated consequences | | | | bureaucracy, firms, and other stakeholders had added |
| which interfere with effective implementation. | | | | to the complexity, delay and failure of the project. |
| Pressman and Wildavsky noted that “when | | | | Hence, the major problem is to make implementation |
| perspectives differ, so also do measure of | | | | problems as part of initial policy formulation process. |
| success” (p. 98). As for instance, the job creation | | | | “Implementation must not be conceived as a |
| for blacks was the main goal and criteria of success | | | | process that takes place after, and independent of, the |
| for the original EDA leaders, while the criteria was | | | | design of policy” (Pressman and Wildavsky 1974: |
| different for other participants of the program; the | | | | 143). |
| expansion of its facilities was the main objective of the | | | | Reference: |
| Port of Oakland; on the other hand the Department of | | | | Pressman, L. |